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Measurement of growth in children with developmental disabilities.

date: 09/01/1996
author: Stevenson RD.
publication: Dev Med Child Neurol. 1996 Sep;38(9):855-60.
pubmed_ID: 8810718

The clinical assessment of growth is a challenging, but essential, aspect of managing the health care of children with developmental disabilities. However, with standard equipment, modest training and some patience, almost all children can be measured reliably. Once reliable measurements are obtained, the interpretation or ‘clinical meaning’ of the measurements depends on their comparison with reference data from normal populations or, when available, with condition-specific reference data. More research is needed to improve our understanding of the clinical meaning of obtained measurements. The range of normal growth for some children with disabilities, particularly CP, remains to be defined. Research in the next ten years will, hopefully, lead to the development of growth charts for children with CP, and perhaps children with other conditions, which will facilitate the clinical interpretation of growth data and lead to improved management of health care for children with developmental disabilities.

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Cardiac output and blood pressure during active and passive standing.

date: 03/16/1996
author: Tanaka H, Sjöberg BJ, Thulesius O.
publication: Clin Physiol. 1996 Mar;16(2):157-70.
pubmed_ID: 8964133
Outside_URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8964133
The present study compared the haemodynamic pattern of active and passive standing. We used non-invasive techniques with beat-to-beat evaluation of blood pressure, heart rate and stroke volume. Seven healthy subjects, aged 24-41 (mean 30) years were examined. Finger blood pressure was continuously recorded by volume clamp technique (Finapres), and simultaneous beat-to-beat beat stroke volume was obtained, using an ultrasound Doppler technique, from the product of the valvular area and the aortic flow velocity time integral in the ascending aorta from the suprasternal notch. Measurements were performed at rest, during active standing and following passive tilt (60 degrees). Active standing caused a transient but greater reduction of blood pressure and a higher increase of heart rate than passive tilt during the first 30s (delta mean blood pressure: -39 +/- 10 vs. -16 +/- 7 mmHg, delta heart rate: 35 +/- 8 vs. 12 +/- 7 beats m-1 (active standing vs. passive tilt; P < 0.01). There was a significantly larger increase in cardiac output during active standing (37 +/- 24 vs. 0 +/- 15%, P < 0.01) and a more marked decrease in total peripheral resistance (-58 +/- 11 vs. -16 +/- 17%, P < 0.01). A precipitous rise in intra-abdominal pressure (43 +/- 22 mmHg) could be observed upon rising only in active standing. This was interpreted as an indication of translocation of blood to the thorax. There was no significant difference in haemodynamic changes during the later stage of standing (1-7 min) between both manoeuvres. These results suggest that active standing causes a marked blood pressure reduction in the initial phase which seems to reflect systemic vasodilatation caused by activation of cardiopulmonary baroreflexes, probably due to a rapid shift of blood from the splanchnic vessels in addition to the shift from muscular vessels associated with abdominal and calf muscle contraction. Moreover, the ultrasound Doppler technique was found to be a more adequate method for rapid beat-to-beat evaluation of cardiac output during orthostatic manoeuvres.

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Fractures in patients with cerebral palsy.

date: 03/01/2007
author: Presedo A, Dabney KW, Miller F.
publication: J Pediatr Orthop. 2007 Mar;27(2):147-53.
pubmed_ID: 17314638

Fractures in children with cerebral palsy (CP) constitute a common clinical problem. The purpose of this retrospective study is to analyze the demographics, identify risk factors, and delineate guidelines for treatment in 156 children with CP who were treated for fractures. To identify changes in demographics, children treated before 1992 (56 patients) were compared with those treated from 1992 to 2000. The latter group of children was compared with an age- and gender-matched group of CP children without fractures. Ambulatory status, the presence of contractures, nutritional status, seizure medication, the type of treatment received, final outcomes, and complications were recorded and statistically analyzed. The mean age at the time of the first fracture was 10 years. Sixty-six percent of patients had spastic quadriplegia, of whom 83% were nonambulatory. Eighty-two percent of fractures occurred in the lower limbs. Forty-eight percent were delayed in diagnosis with no cause determined. Children treated after 1992 had higher incidence of multiple fractures, lower incidence contractures, and a younger age at first fracture. This group showed a statistically significant difference for anticonvulsant therapy (P=0.001), CP pattern (P=0.005), ambulatory status (P=0.001), and osteopenia (P=0.001) when compared with the group of CP patients without fractures. Eighty percent of fractures were treated with a soft bulky dressing. Complications occurred in 17% of patients. The greatest risk factor for fracture is the nonambulatory CP child on anticonvulsant therapy. These risk factors seem to have increased, resulting in a higher prevalence of low energy fractures. Future research must focus on the underlying mechanisms and prevention of this condition.

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Will whole-body vibration training help increase the range of motion of the hamstrings?

date: 02/20/2006
author: van den Tillaar R.
publication: J Strength Cond Res. 2006 Feb;20(1):192-6.
pubmed_ID: 16503680
Outside_URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16503680
Muscle strain is one of the most common injuries, resulting in a decreased range of motion (ROM) in this group of muscles. Systematic stretching over a period of time is needed to increase the ROM. The purpose of this study was to determine if whole-body vibration (WBV) training would have a positive effect on flexibility training (contract-release method) and thereby on the ROM of the hamstring musculature. In this study, 19 undergraduate students in physical education (12 women and 7 men, age 21.5 +/- 2.0 years) served as subjects and were randomly assigned to either a WBV group or a control group. Both groups stretched systematically 3 times per week for 4 weeks according to the contract-release method, which consists of a 5-second isometric contraction with each leg 3 times followed by 30 seconds of static stretching. Before each stretching exercise, the WBV group completed a WBV program consisting of standing in a squat position on the vibration platform with the knees bent 90 degrees on the Nemes Bosco system vibration platform (30 seconds at 28 Hz, 10-mm amplitude, 6 times per training session). The results show that both groups had a significant increase in hamstring flexibility. However, the WBV group showed a significantly larger increase (30%) in ROM than did the control group (14%). These results indicate that WBV training may have an extra positive effect on flexibility of the hamstrings when combined with the contract-release stretching method.

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Osteomalacia associated with anticonvulsant drug therapy in mentally retarded children.

date: 08/01/1975
author: Tolman KG, Jubiz W, Sannella JJ, Madsen JA, Belsey RE, Goldsmith RS, Freston JW.
publication: Pediatrics. 1975 Jul;56(1):45-50.
pubmed_ID: 1161362

A survey of 289 severely retarded inpatients at a school for retarded children in American Fork; Utah revealed 67 patients with osteomalacia as defined by hypocalcemia, hypophosphatemia, elevated serum alkaline phosphatase levels, and appropriate bone changes. Investigation of the variables which might influence bone mineralization revealed no differences in age, sex, physical activity, sunshine exposure, or dietary intake of vitamin D between the osteomalacia and nonosteomalacia groups. However, all of the patients with osteomalacia were receiving anticonvulsant medications, either phenobarbital, diphenylhydantoin, or both. Duration of anticonvulsant therapy was the most important contributing factor to the development of osteomalacia. Seventy-five percent of patients who had received anticonvulsants for more than ten years had osteomalacia. The single most costly medical problem at the school is the treatment of pathologic bone fractures due to demineralized bone.

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Effects of a single session of prolonged muscle stretch on spastic muscle of stroke patients.

date: 04/25/2001
author: Tsai KH, Yeh CY, Chang HY, Chen JJ.
publication: Proc Natl Sci Counc Repub China B. 2001 Apr;25(2):76-81.
pubmed_ID: 11370763

The control of spasticity is often a significant problem in the management of patients with spasticity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a single session of prolonged muscle stretch (PMS) on the spastic muscle. Seventeen patients with spastic hemiplegia were selected to receive treatment. Subjects underwent PMS of the triceps surae (TS) by standing with the feet dorsiflexed on a tilt-table for 30 minutes. Our test battery consisted of four measurements including the modified Ashworth scale of the TS, the passive range of motion (ROM) of ankle dorsiflexion, the H/M ratio of the TS, and the F/M ratio of the tibialis anterior (TA). The results indicated that the passive ROM of ankle dorsiflexion increased significantly (p < 0.05) compared to that before PMS treatment. Additionally, PMS reduced motor neuron excitability of the TS and significantly increased that of the TA (p < 0.05). These results suggest that 30 minutes of PMS is effective in reducing motor neuron excitability of the TS in spastic hemiplegia, thus providing a safe and economical method for treating stroke patients.

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Effect of weight-bearing activities on bone mineral density in spinal cord injured patients during the period of the first two years.

date: 11/01/2008
author: Alekna V, Tamulaitiene M, Sinevicius T, Juocevicius A.
publication: Spinal Cord. 2008 Nov;46(11):727-32. Epub 2008 Apr 29.
pubmed_ID: 18443599

STUDY DESIGN: Prospective study on patients with spinal cord injuries. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the loss of bone mineral density (BMD) in various body regions of patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) and its dependence on weight bearing activities during 2 years post injury. METHODS: BMD of the whole body was measured in patients with SCI. Baseline measurement was performed in 6-16 weeks after SCI, the second and the third-respectively 12 and 24 months after injury. Fifty-four subjects were selected and divided into two groups: standing and non-standing. From these groups 27 pairs were made according to gender, age and height. RESULTS: There was found to be a well-marked decrease in BMD values for lower extremities, but there was no significant difference between paraplegic and tetraplegic patients 1 and 2 year after injury. Leg BMD reduced by 19.62% (95% CI, 17-22%) in the standing group and by 24% (95% CI, 21-27%) in non-standing group during the first year. Two years after SCI patients in standing group had significantly higher leg BMD-1.018 g/cm(2) (95% CI, 0.971-1.055 g/cm(2)) than in the non-standing group-0.91 g/cm(2) (95% CI, 0.872-0.958 g/cm(2)) (P<or=0.0001). CONCLUSION: SCI patients who performed daily standing >or=1 h and not less than 5 days per week, had significantly higher BMD in the lower extremities after 2 years in comparison to those patients who did not perform standing.

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Prevention of severe contractures might replace multilevel surgery in cerebral palsy: results of a population-based health care programme and new techniques to reduce spasticity.

date: 07/01/2005
author: Hägglund G, Andersson S, Düppe H, Lauge-Pedersen H, Nordmark E, Westbom L
publication: J Pediatr Orthop B. 2005 Jul;14(4):269-73.
pubmed_ID: 15931031

During the 1990s three new techniques to reduce spasticity and dystonia in children with cerebral palsy (CP) were introduced in southern Sweden: selective dorsal rhizotomy, continuous intrathecal baclofen infusion and botulinum toxin treatment. In 1994 a CP register and a health care programme, aimed to prevent hip dislocation and severe contractures, were initiated in the area. The total population of children with CP born 1990-1991, 1992-1993 and 1994-1995 was evaluated and compared at 8 years of age. In non-ambulant children the passive range of motion in hip, knee and ankle improved significantly from the first to the later age groups. Ambulant children had similar range of motion in the three age groups, with almost no severe contractures. The proportion of children treated with orthopaedic surgery for contracture or skeletal torsion deformity decreased from 40 to 15% (P = 0.0019). One-fifth of the children with spastic diplegia had been treated with selective dorsal rhizotomy. One-third of the children born 1994-1995 had been treated with botulinum toxin before 8 years of age. With early treatment of spasticity, early non-operative treatment of contracture and prevention of hip dislocation, the need for orthopaedic surgery for contracture or torsion deformity is reduced, and the need for multilevel procedures seems to be eliminated.

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Measurement of muscle thickness as quantitative muscle evaluation for adults with severe cerebral palsy.

date: 09/01/2006
author: Ohata K, Tsuboyama T, Ichihashi N, Minami S.
publication: Phys Ther. 2006 Sep;86(9):1231-9.
pubmed_ID: 16959671

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The muscle strength of people with severe cerebral palsy (CP) is difficult to quantify because of cognitive and selective motor control problems. However, if muscle strength is related to muscle atrophy caused by activity limitation, quantitative morphological analysis such as analysis of muscle thickness (MTH), measured by ultrasound imaging, may be used to examine the muscle condition in daily use. The primary purpose of this investigation was to clarify the difference in MTH of several muscles by the motor functions used in daily activity in adults with CP with different levels of severity of involvement. The secondary purpose was to examine whether MTH is associated with age, body characteristics, and muscle spasticity. SUBJECTS: Data were collected from a convenience sample of 25 adults with severe CP. METHODS: The MTH of the biceps brachii (BB), quadriceps femoris (QF), triceps surae (TS), and longissimus (LO) muscles was measured with an ultrasound imaging device. The severity of the condition was classified with the Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS), and functional status in sitting and standing was evaluated with a questionnaire administered to the staff assisting in the care of the subjects. Muscle spasticity was assessed with the Modified Ashworth Scale (MAS). RESULTS: The MTH of the QF, LO, and TS showed significant differences according to the GMFCS level, and the MTH of the QF and LO differed significantly depending on functional status during activities of daily living. Age and body mass index showed no significant correlation with the MTH of any muscle. Body weight was correlated with the MTH of the BB and LO. The girth of the extremity was correlated only with the MTH of the BB. There was no relationship between MTH and MAS scores. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the MTH of the QF and LO differed significantly depending on the subjects’ motor function during daily activity. The measurement of MTH may be an alternative method of quantitative muscle evaluation for people with severe CP for whom direct measurement of muscle strength is difficult.

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Bone mineral density and fractures in boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

date: 02/01/2000
author: Larson CM, Henderson RC.
publication: J Pediatr Orthop. 2000 Jan-Feb;20(1):71-4.
pubmed_ID: 10641693

The relationships between bone density, mobility, and fractures were assessed in 41 boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Bone density in the lumbar spine was only slightly decreased while the boys were ambulatory (mean z-score, -0.8), but significantly decreased with loss of ambulation (mean z-score, -1.7). In contrast, bone density in the proximal femur was profoundly diminished even when gait was minimally affected (mean z-score, -1.6), and then progressively decreased to nearly 4 standard deviations below age-matched normals (mean z-score, -3.9). These are consistent with the findings that 18 (44%) of the boys sustained a fracture, 66% of these fractures involved the lower extremities, and there were no spinal compression fractures. Furthermore, four (44%) of nine boys who were walking with aids or support at the time of fracture never resumed walking after the fracture. Osteoporosis is most profound in the lower extremities of boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and begins to develop early while still ambulating. Frequent fractures that may result in loss of ambulation are the clinical consequences.